Part 1 of "A Very Good Officer" addressed Crawford's service in the early days of the America Revolution, including raising of the West Augusta, or 13th Virginia, regiment. It concluded with his travel east over the mountains in the summer of 1777 to serve with the main army under Washington. Part 2 resumes William Crawford's story in Philadelphia and explores his role in a number of skirmishes and battles in the eastern theater of the war.
Maxwell’s Light Infantry
Shortly after arriving in Philadelphia, Crawford was appointed a field officer in the newly formed light infantry corps commanded by Gen. William Maxwell. The light infantry was composed of about eight to nine hundred select men (a hundred from each brigade of the Continental Army)[1] to serve as scouts, flankers, and skirmishers. These functions previously were performed by Col. Daniel Morgan’s elite rifle corps, however, they recently had been deployed to upstate New York in support of Gen. Horatio Gates. Private William Walker, a member of the light Infantry detached from the 4th Virginia, described Crawford in the attire of a frontier riflemen: “…Colonel Crawford with his leather hunting shirt, pantaloons and Rifle….” [2]
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Painting of a Frontier Rifleman (1781) (dressed similar to a description of Crawford) |
Crawford apparently was placed in charge of the 300 Virginians assigned to the light infantry as Private William Grant of the 12th Virginia recalled: “… three brigades of Virginians … from each of which they detached a party of 100 light armed men, as scouts, under the command of Col. Crawford….” [3]
Battle of Cooch’s Bridge
In late August 1777, after a prolonged voyage from New York City, British forces under General William Howe sailed up the Chesapeake Bay and landed near Turkey Point, Maryland, about ten miles southwest of Head-of-Elk (Present day Elkton, MD). To counter the British, Washington positioned his main army outside of Wilmington, Delaware to guard the King’s Road, the primary route through Delaware to Philadelphia. He also deployed Maxwell’s light infantry to scout and harass the British.
Maxwell positioned his corps, along with a regiment of militia, about five miles from Head-of-Elk at Cooch’s Bridge, where the King’s Road crossed Christiana Creek, and also situated troops on the adjacent Iron Hill. He deployed advanced parties of riflemen along the road leading south from Cooch’s Bridge toward Aitkin’s Tavern (present day Glasgow, DE) and on the morning of September 3rd they ambushed the British vanguard. Howe’s aide-de-camp, Captain Friederich von Muenchhausen, described the tactics employed by the riflemen: “We saw several rebels behind trees, firing at our advancing Jaegers, then retreating about 20 yards behind the next tree, then firing again.” [4] Maxwell’s advanced parties continued to fire and fall back, eventually joining the main body of the light infantry positioned on the west side of Cooch’s bridge.
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Battle of Cooch’s Bridge Pencader Heritage
Museum (from Delaware Way Blog) |
The fighting at Cooch’s Bridge and Iron Hill was intense and Crawford apparently was in the middle of it, as Capt. John Chilton of the 3rd Virginia recorded in his diary: “3d Septr. The enemy … were met with by our advanced party under Colo Crawford, the engagement was pretty hot. several on each side was wounded and some slain.” [5] After fighting for several hours, the outnumbered Americans, being low on ammunition and without artillery, were driven from Cooch's Bridge and Iron Hill. Maxwell’s light infantry withdrew and took up position near the Rising Sun Tavern in Stanton, Delaware, about a mile and a half in front of the American lines at Newport, Delaware.[6]
March to Pennsylvania
The British army encamped near Cooch’s Bridge and Iron Hill for almost a week, then in the early morning hours of September 8th, broke camp and marched northward. Rather than engage in a frontal assault of the American fortifications at Newport, Howe maneuvered his forces around them and moved toward Pennsylvania on a different route to Philadelphia.
When Washington became aware of the British movement, he deployed Maxwell’s light infantry to follow and harass them – “a large scout sent out under the command of Gen'l Maxwell, who in their route fired several times upon the enemy.” [7] Captain John Peebles, who was part of the British vanguard, noted in his diary, “we proceeded on the Lancaster road … saw a Column of dust rising out of the wood over the road in our front, which being reconoitred some of the Enemy were seen Horse & foot.” [8] These horse and foot soldiers probably were Maxwell’s corps with Crawford leading patrols and skirmishing with British scouts and sentries.
Lt. John Marshall of the light infantry recounted their march on September 8th, “The day the Enemy moved from Iron Hill we marched a considerable distance (t’was supposed that we might attack them advantageously) at the close of the evening we retired without fighting. That night in common with many other nights we lay without Blankets & without provisions...." [9] They camped that evening at Hockessin Quaker Meeting House, near the Pennsylvania border. The officers, including Crawford, may have spent that night in the meeting house. Meanwhile, the British had marched about ten miles from Cooch’s Bridge, passing through Newark, Delaware, and camping south of the Americans,[10] with Gen. Howe's headquarters in the nearby Daniel Nichol's House.[11]
On the morning of September 9th, the light infantry quickly departed from their camp as the British continued their march northward. The remains of Maxwell’s camp were observed by the British as they passed the Hockessin Meeting House. “Here the rebels had a body of their forces, consisting (as the quakers told us) of fifty or sixty light horse and about a thousand foot,” an anonymous British officer noted in his journal, “They were but just got away, for many of their fires were still burning when we arrived.” [12]
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Hockessin Quaker Meeting House (2014) |
Battle of Brandywine
While Maxwell’s light infantry scouted and harassed the British, the main American army quietly slipped from their fortifications early in the morning of September 9th and also headed north into Pennsylvania. The Americans dug-in along the east side of Chadds Ford, where the Nottingham, or Great Post Road, crossed Brandywine Creek on its way to Philadelphia. The light infantry soon followed and initially were positioned on the west side of Chadds Ford, deploying several detachments west along Nottingham Road toward Kennett Square to once again harass the British vanguard. Crawford, who had played a significant role at Cooch’s Bridge, did not command any of these detachments, but may have been with Maxwell and the main body of light infantry positioned on the west side of Brandywine Creek.
On the morning of September 11th 1777, the Battle of Brandywine commenced when British, Hessian, and Loyalist troops clashed with the light infantry detachments, who fired and fell back as they did at Cooch’s Bridge. After fighting for most of the morning, Maxwell’s corps ultimately withdrew across Chadds Ford to join the rest of the American army on the east side of the Brandywine. Here they fought for the remainder of the day, with parties of the light infantry crossing back and forth over the creek to continue harassing the British.
Crawford’s role during the Battle of Brandywine is uncertain, one account claims that he led horse mounted troops. “Col. Crawford narrowly escaped capture, his impetuous charge having carried him and his bold riders into the very midst of an entire regiment of the enemy,” [13] however, sources to substantiate this story have not been identified.
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Battle of the Brandywine (1898) |
As the column of British, Hessian, and Loyalists under Hessian General Wilhelm Van Knyphausen attacked Chadds Ford, Gen. Howe led a second column to the north, crossing the Brandywine at unguarded fords further upstream. They attacked the American right flank and despite a valiant effort, the Americans were driven from the battlefield and retreated to Chester, Pennsylvania.
Battle of the Clouds
After regrouping at Chester, the American army moved across the Schuylkill River to the Germantown area north of Philadelphia, where Washington considered his options for defending Philadelphia. On September 14th, the Americans crossed back over the river and marched west along the Old Lancaster Road. They took position near the White Horse Tavern to block access to the Schuylkill by the British, who were still encamped near the Brandywine battlefield about 15 miles to the south.
When Howe learned of the new American position, he marched his troops north in two columns toward the White Horse Tavern to engage Washington. As the two armies began skirmishing on the morning of September 16th, a torrential rainstorm commenced, miring troops and wagons on muddy roads and ruining ammunition. Crawford likely was on the American right flank with Maxwell’s light infantry, who were positioned west of the White Horse at Thomas's Mill, along with Pennsylvania militia under Gen. James Potter. The skirmish, which became known as the Battle of the Clouds, lasted only a brief period.
As the American army withdrew in order to resupply, the light infantry covered their flanks, as a young Connecticut artilleryman recalled, mistaking Maxwell’s corps for Morgan’s riflemen: “All this time Morgans riffelmen [Maxwell’s light infantry] ware on the wings, next to the enemy, against the Hissions [Hessians], as they could use their rifels, having bearskins over their locks, and every now and then … would give a crack at each other.” [14]
Defending the Schuylkill
After being supplied with fresh ammunition, Washington positioned his army at key fords along the Schuylkill River to once again block a British advance toward Philadelphia. However, he was uncertain if Howe would cross the river and strike at the American capital or turn westward to capture the supply depot at Reading, Pennsylvania. On September 21st Howe appeared to be quickly moving his forces toward Reading, which induced Washington to withdraw from the Schuylkill and also march in that direction. Howe’s move, however, was a feint and after the Americans had pulled away from the river, the British turned back and crossed the Schuylkill on the night of September 22nd and into the morning of the 23rd, primarily at Fatland Ford near Valley Forge.
The militia guarding Swede’s Ford at Norriton (present day Norristown, PA), about five miles downriver of Fatland, quickly retreated fearing they would be outflanked as the British advanced along the east side of the river. Col. Joseph Reed, who had been at Swede’s Ford, narrowly escaped capture, “I stayed at my House as long or perhaps rather longer than was prudent—the Enemy came there in about 15 Minutes after.” Reed fled about a mile north to the Norrington Meeting House (possibly the Norriton Presbyterian church) where he collected “a small party” of men. Here Reed was joined by William Crawford, who may have been leading a light infantry patrol near Norriton that day. “I have a Colonel Crawford with me a very good Officer,” Reed informed Washington, “but we cannot muster more than 50 or 60 Men.” They managed to capture two British privates and after interrogating them sent what little information they could acquire to Washington.[15]
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Old Norriton Presbyterian Church (2012) |
If Crawford was commanding a scouting party of light infantry on the 23rd, it may have been one of the last operations conducted by Maxwell’s corps. The light infantry, which was already diminished by men returning to their regiments after the Battle of Brandywine,[16] apparently was disbanded by September 26th.[17] About 450 men were still counted as part of the light infantry on the 28th, however, they no longer were led by Maxwell.[18] Perhaps Crawford commanded the remaining troops of the light infantry in its final days.
Battle of Germantown / Crawford’s Militia Brigade
After outmaneuvering the Americans at the Schuylkill River, British forces marched into Philadelphia on September 26th. Gen. Howe positioned the majority of his troops outside the city in the small community of Germantown, leaving a garrison of about 3,000 men in Philadelphia. Learning that the British forces were divided, Washington planned a strike against their camp at Germantown.
With the light infantry disbanded, Crawford’s role at the Battle of Germantown on October 4th is unknown. Robert Hedges, a militiaman from Prince William County, Virginia recalled “that he was not in the Battle of Jarman Town [Germantown] owing to Gen Crawfords [Col Crawford] covering the retreat.” [19]
Crawford may have been commanding militia at that time, given that a week later a number of recently arrived Virginia militia regiments were organized into a brigade under him:
“The militia from the Counties of Prince William, Culpepper, Loudoun, and Berkley, in the State of Virginia are to be formed into a brigade, and be under the command of Col. William Crawford” [20]
Brigades typically were commanded by a brigadier general, which explains why Crawford was sometimes referred to as “General Crawford.” However, a senior ranking colonel in a brigade could also act as commander when a brigadier general was not available. Thomas White, serving with the Loudon County militia, provided some insight into the confusion: “General (usually called Colonel) Crawford.” [21]
Militia units arriving from Virginia rendezvoused with the main army at varying times from several days prior to the Battle of Germantown until shortly thereafter.[22] When Benjamin Delaney of the Culpeper militia joined the army near Germantown, he recounted being “…placed under the command of Colo Crawford and was then employed in scouting.” [23]
Equipment was scarce for the militia and many waited in Lancaster to receive arms before joining the main army.[24] Another item in short supply was cartouche or cartridge boxes – leather pouches containing a wooden block with holes drilled in it for holding ammunition cartridges (small paper tubes filled with gun powder and a bullet).
“As there are not spare cartouch boxes at this time, to supply the militia, Col. Crawford is desired to use his utmost skill and industry to procure horns and pouches to carry their ammunition in, or to adopt any other method, he may, upon consulting his officers, find more expeditious.” [25]
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Cartridge Box and Ammunition (1770-1780) Museum of the American Revolution (Benninghoff Collection)
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Cartridge Box in Use |
The use of “horns and pouches” involved carrying gun powder in a hollowed out cattle horn and musket balls in a pouch or bag. Since the powder and balls are loaded from separate containers in this approach, it's not as efficient as using paper cartridge ammunition, but was employed in cases where cartridges and/or cartridge boxes were unavailable.
In early November, Crawford’s Virginia militia brigade was dispatched to serve with Gen. James Potter in Chester, Pennsylvania “for the particular purpose of distressing the Enemy by cutting their banks." [26] This work, which involved breaching river and creek banks to flood roads and fields making them impassable, evidently had been completed by Potter’s Pennsylvania militia by the time Crawford’s brigade had arrived. [27]
Gen. Potter also was responsible for removing the grinding stones from Brandywine Mills near Wilmington, Delaware, in order to prevent the British from using the mills to make flour.[28] However, the officer under Potter who was responsible for performing this task lacked sufficient wagons to carry the stones and so only removed the “Spinnels Rines and Tronnale heads” [spindles, rynds, and trundle heads] of the mill’s gearing system.[29] Washington was furious and called for the officer to be arrested for disobeying orders, given that these parts could easily be replaced and the mills brought back into operation.[30]
Potter considered employing the Virginia militia to remove the grinding stones and consulted with Crawford, but they decided against it: “I Requested that the[y] might assist in Moving the mill stons, Col. Crawford thougt the[y] wold not and we did not ask them." [31] Apparently, some of the militia were aware of plans to employ them in this work, however, they believed it was to remove the gearing, as the Pennsylvanians had done. They “were ordered to join Potter's brigade … to go and take the spindles out of the Brandywine Mills in Delaware,” Loudon County militiaman Thomas White recalled, “to prevent them from manufacturing flour for the British, but this was done before his arrival.” [32]
By early November the Virginia militia enlistments were expiring and they were growing anxious to leave, “Col. Crafords men are uneasey and wanting to go home,” Potter informed Washington on November 5th.[33] Since the Virginians also were no longer needed for “cutting the banks,” Washington felt “they need not be detained against their will.” [34] Crawford therefore discharged the Virginia militia under his command sometime in early November. Thomas White remembered seeing Crawford dismiss the troops:
“General [Colonel] Crawford who he well recollects sitting on horseback called up said militia companies and discharged them saying ‘Gentlemen, Officers and soldiers you are all discharged.’ " [35]
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| Locations in the eastern theater of the Revolution where Crawford served, including: Cooch's Bridge, Chadds Ford, White Horse Tavern, Norriton, and Chester |
By late November, tensions were growing on the western frontier and with the Virginia militia returning home and Crawford's brigade dissolved, Congress resolved on November 20th 1777:
“That General Washington be requested to send Colonel William Crawford to Pittsburg, to take command, under Brigadier General Hand, of the continental troops and militia in the western department." [36]
Crawford departed the main army encampment at Whitemarsh, approximately 15 miles northwest of Philadelphia, on November 25th. [37] He first traveled to York, Pennsylvania where he received orders from Congress, who had fled to York prior to Philadelphia being captured by the British. From York he traveled westward over the mountains back to Spring Garden, his home at Stewart's Crossing on the Youghiogheny.
After returning home, Crawford continued to serve in the west under Generals Edward Hand and Lachlan McIntosh, constructing Fort Crawford on the Allegheny River near the mouth of Pucketa Creek. He participated in the conference with Lenape (Delaware) leaders in the summer of 1778 and was one of the American signatories on the resulting Treaty of Fort Pitt, the first written treaty between the fledgling United States and a Native American nation. Later that year, he led militia into the Ohio country as part of the McIntosh expedition, helping to build Forts McIntosh and Laurens. Crawford retired from military service in 1781, but returned in 1782 to lead the ill-fated expedition to Sandusky.
Summary
While much is still unknown of Crawford’s service in the eastern theater of the Revolutionary War, some insight was gained into his contributions while with the main army in 1776 and 1777. From serving as an officer in the 5th and 7th Virginia regiments and raising of the 13th Virginia, to leading light infantry troops in skirmishes with the British and commanding a brigade of Virginia militia, Crawford contributed significantly to the American war effort in the east, as well as on the western frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia.
[1] Harris, Michael C., Brandywine - A Military History of the Battle that Lost Philadelphia but Saved America, September 11, 1777, pg. 124
[2] Pension application of William Walker S6340 http://revwarapps.org/s6340.pdf
[3] Narrative of Sergeant William Grant in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, E.B. O’Callaghan, ed. (Albany NY: Weed, Parsons and Co., 1853), v. 8: pg. 733 https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ08brod/page/732/mode/2up
[4] Muenchhausen. Friedrich von, At General Howe’s Side, 1776–1778: The Diary of General William Howe’s Aide de Camp, Captain Friedrich von Muenchhausen, Sept 3 1777, pg 28 https://archive.org/details/atgeneralhowessi0000muen/mode/2up
[5] The Diary of Captain John Chilton, Sept 3 177, in Cecere, M., They Behaved Like Soldiers: Captain John Chilton and the Third Virginia Regiment, 1775-1778. Heritage Books, 2007, pg. 122
[6] Capt. Charles Porterfield testimony, in Catts, W. P., Selig, R. A., and Moir, S., “Left Newport … Before Daylight and March’d to Chads Ford,” South River Heritage Consulting, 2019, pg.17 https://www.chescoplanning.org/Historic/Campaign1777/South-TechReport-Daylight.pdf
[7] Diary of Joseph Clark, Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society, v. 7-8, pg. 98, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101076450087&seq=106
[8] Peebles, J. (1776-1782). John Peebles' Journal. In I. D. Gruber, John Peebles' American War : The Diary of a Scottish Grenadier, 1776-1782. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books (1998), pg.132
[9] Catts, W. P., Selig, R. A., and Moir, S., “Left Newport … Before Daylight and March’d to Chads Ford,” South River Heritage Consulting, 2019, pg.17 https://www.chescoplanning.org/Historic/Campaign1777/South-TechReport-Daylight.pdf
[10] André, J. André's journal: an authentic record of the movements and engagements of the British Army in America from June 1777 to November 1778 as recorded from day to day by Major John André. (1903), pg. 83 https://hdl.handle.net/2027/osu.32435024928012?urlappend=%3Bseq=155%3Bownerid=13510798903168692-161
[11] The Daniel Nichols House historic marker, https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=168292
[12] Catts, W. P., Selig, R. A., and Moir, S., “Left Newport … Before Daylight and March’d to Chads Ford,” South River Heritage Consulting, 2019, pg.18 https://www.chescoplanning.org/Historic/Campaign1777/South-TechReport-Daylight.pdf
[13] The West Virginia Historical Magazine, v. 4, October 1904, No. 4, pg. 266.
[14] Dann, John C. ed., The Nagle Journal: A Diary of the Life of Jacob Nagle, Sailor, From the Year 1775 to 1841, New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988, pg 10. https://archive.org/details/naglejournaldiar0000nagl
[15] Joseph Reed to George Washington (Norrington Meeting House), 23 September 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-11-02-0311
[16] “Such men belonging to Genl Maxwell’s light corps as have returned to their regiments, are again to join Genl Maxwell without delay,” General Orders, 15 September 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-11-02-0227
[17] Washington wrote to Major General Lord Sterling on September 25th to determine if “Maxwells Corps to join their respective Brigades immediately, or wait till to morrow,” George Washington to Major General Stirling, 25 September 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-11-02-0336
[18] at a Council of War on September 28th about 450 men of the light corps, “lately under Genl Maxwell,” were included in the tally of American troops
[19] Pension Application of Robert Hedges (Hodges) W11327 https://revwarapps.org/w11327.pdf
[20] General Orders, 11 October 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-11-02-0488
[21] Pension application of Thomas White R11442, https://revwarapps.org/r11442.pdf
[22] Robert Hedges (https://revwarapps.org/w11327.pdf) of the Prince William militia, recalled joining Washington “Shortly after the Battle of Brandywine, and a few days before the battle of Jarman Town [Germantown].” Thomas Hughes (https://revwarapps.org/s5589.pdf) of the Culpeper militia recalled joining Washington “the Saturday after the day that the Battle of Germantown was fought” [10/11/77]. Likewise, Giles Lawrey (https://revwarapps.org/s5670.pdf) of the Culpeper militia recalled “that they joined at Washington's Army soon after the battle at Germantown.”
[23] Pension Application of Benjamin Delaney S2527, https://revwarapps.org/s2527.pdf
[24] Richard Peters to George Washington, 1 October 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-11-02-0392
[25] General Orders, 13 October 1777, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-11-02-0504
[26] George Washington to Brigadier General James Potter, 5 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0125
[27] Brigadier General James Potter to George Washington, 8 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0165
[28] Brigadier General James Potter to George Washington, 3 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0094
[29] George Washington to Brigadier General James Potter, 5 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0125
[30] Ibid
[31] Brigadier General James Potter to George Washington, 8 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0165
[32] Pension application of Thomas White R11442, https://revwarapps.org/r11442.pdf
[33] Brigadier General James Potter to George Washington, 5 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0124
[34] George Washington to Brigadier General James Potter, 5 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0125
[35] Pension application of Thomas White R11442, https://revwarapps.org/r11442.pdf
[36] Journals of the Continental Congress, Thursday, 20 Nov 1776, v. 9, pg. 944
[37] George Washington to Henry Laurens, 26–27 November 1777, Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0409
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